Many high-performance materials, particularly segmented copolymers or composite structures, require controlled synthesis of polymers from functional monomers employing well defined initiators. [Macromolecular Engineering. Precise Synthesis, Materials Properties, Applications; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, 2007.] For optimal performance in many applications the materials also require controlled processing taking into account the size and topology of phase separated domains and the dynamics of testing response rates.
Access to well-defined block copolymers was opened by Szwarc in the 1950's [Nature 1956, 176, 1168-1169] by the development of living anionic polymerization. The biggest limitation of this technique is its sensitivity to impurities (moisture, carbon dioxide) and even mild electrophiles, which limits the process to a narrow range of monomers. The reaction medium and all components have to be extensively purified before polymerization, thus preparation of functional block copolymers or other well-defined polymeric materials in high purity can be challenging. Nevertheless, anionic polymerization, which was first implemented in an academic setting, was quickly adapted on an industrial scale and ultimately led to the mass production of several well-defined block copolymers, such as polystyrene-b-polybutadiene-b-polystyrene, performing as a thermoplastic elastomer. [Thermoplastic Elastomers, 3rd Ed.; Hanser: Munich, 2004]
The fast industrial adaptation of such a challenging technique may be explained by the fact that anionic polymerization was the first and, indeed only example of a living polymerization process for more than three decades, that allowed for the synthesis of previously inaccessible well defined high-performance materials from a very narrow selection of vinyl monomers. Nevertheless materials based on modified block copolymers with properties that were desired in many applications, were the main driving force for scaling up anionic polymerization processes. [Ionic Polymerization and Living Polymers; Chapman and Hall, New York, 1993, ISBN 0-412-03661-4.]
In late 1970's to early 1990's, living carbocationic polymerization was discovered and optimized. [Adv. Polym. Sci. 1980, 37, 1-144.] However this procedure is just as sensitive to impurities as anionic polymerization and the range of polymerizable monomers for both techniques was essentially limited to non-polar vinyl monomers.
While many earlier attempts were made to develop controlled radical polymerization (CRP) processes the critical advances were made in the mid 1990s. CRP can be applied to the polymerization of functional monomers and hence preparation of many different site specific functional (co)polymers under mild conditions became feasable. [Materials Today 2005, 8, 26-33 and Handbook of Radical Polymerization; Wiley Interscience: Hoboken, 2002.] From a commercial point of view, CRP processes can be conducted at convenient temperatures, do not require extensive purification of the monomers or solvents and can be conducted in bulk, solution, aqueous suspension, emulsion, etc. CRP allows the preparation of polymers with predetermined molecular weights, low polydispersity and controlled composition, and topology. Radical polymerization is much more tolerant of functional groups than ionic polymerization processes and a broader range of unsaturated monomers can be polymerized providing materials with site specific functionality. In addition, copolymerization reactions, which are generally challenging for ionic polymerizations due to large differences in reactivity ratios of monomers under ionic polymerization conditions, are easy to perform using radical based CRP. This provides an opportunity to synthesize polymeric materials with predetermined molecular weight (MW), low polydispersity (PDI), controlled composition, site specific functionalities, selected chain topology and composite structures that can be employed to incorporate bio- or inorganic species into the final product.
The three most studied, and commercially promising, methods of controlling radical polymerization are nitroxide mediated polymerization (NMP), [Chemical Reviews 2001, 101, 3661-3688] atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), [J. Chem. Rev. 2001, 101, 2921-2990; Progress in Polymer Science 2007, 32, 93-146.] and degenerative transfer with dithioesters via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization (RAFT). [Progress in Polymer Science 2007, 32, 283-351] Each of these methods relies on establishment of a dynamic equilibrium between a low concentration of active propagating chains and a predominant amount of dormant chains that are unable to propagate or terminate as a means of extending the lifetime of the propagating chains.
The simple four component atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) process, shown below in Scheme 1, was discovered by Matyjaszewski at Carnegie Mellon University and he and his coworkers have disclosed ATRP, and many improvements to the basic ATRP process which may be applicable to some or all of the embodiments herein, in a number of patents and patent applications [U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,763,546; 5,807,937; 5,763,548, 5,789,487; 5,945,491; 6,111,022; 6,121,371; 6,124,411; 6,162,882; 6,624,262; 6,407,187; 6,512,060; 6,627,314; 6,790,919; 7,019,082; 7,049,373; 7,064,166; 7,157,530 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/534,827; International Publication WO 2007/025310 A1 and International Application Nos. PCT/US2004/009905; PCT/US2005/007264; PCT/US2005/007265; PCT/US2006/033152, PCT/US2006/033792 and PCT/US2006/048656], all of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. Based on the number of publications, ATRP has emerged as the preferred process for controlled/living polymerization of radically (co)polymerizable monomers. Typically, an ATRP process comprises use of a transition metal complex that acts as a catalyst for the controlled polymerization of radically (co)polymerizable monomers from an initiator with one or more transferable atoms or groups. Suitable initiators are frequently substituted alkyl halides attached to a low molecular weight molecule with an additional non-initiating functionality, a low molecular weight initiator or macroinitiator with two or more transferable atoms or groups or a solid inorganic or organic material with tethered initiating groups. The transition metal catalyst participates in a repetitive redox reaction whereby the lower oxidation state transition metal complex (Mtn/Ligand) homolytically removes a transferable atom or group from an initiator molecule or dormant polymer chain, Pn—X, to form the active propagating species, P.n, in an activating reaction with a rate of activation ka which propagates at a rate kp before the higher oxidation state transition metal complex (X-Mtn+1/Ligand) deactivates the active propagating species, P.n by donating back a transferable atom or group to the active chain end, rate kda, not necessarily the same atom or group from the same transition metal complex (Scheme 1).

The catalyst is not bound to the chain end, as in coordination polymerization, and can therefore be used in a controlled/living polymerization process at sub-stoichiometric amounts relative to the initiator. Nevertheless, as a consequence of radical-radical termination reactions, proceeding with a rate=kt in Scheme 1, forming Pn—Pm dead chains and an excess of X-Mtn+1/Ligand.
Examples of the spectrum of new well-defined polymeric materials prepared using ATRP in the past decade include block copolymers, branched polymers, polymeric stars, brushes, and networks, each with pre-determinable site specific functionality as well as hybrids with inorganic materials or bio-conjugates. However, its widespread commercial utilization is still limited. [Chem. Rev. 2007, 107, 2270-2299.] Nevertheless, these custom fabricated materials have potential to improve the performance of a multitude of commercial products in the areas of personal care and cosmetics, detergents and surfactants, paints, pigments and coatings, adhesives, thermoplastic elastomers, biocompatible materials and drug delivery systems if a cost effective, environmentally benign, scalable process can be defined.
The initially defined normal ATRP process requires a high catalyst concentration, often approaching 0.1 M in bulk monomer polymerization reactions, typical concentrations range from 0.5% to 1 mol % vs. monomer, [Handbook of Radical Polymerization; Wiley Interscience: Hoboken, 2002] to overcome the effects of continuous buildup of ATRP's equivalent of the persistent radical (X-Mtn+1/Ligand). [Journal of the American Chemical Society 1986, 108, 3925-3927 and Macromolecules 1997, 30, 5666-5672.] The high levels of catalyst employed in the initial ATRP reactions, even those involving more active catalyst complexes, were required to overcome the effects of unavoidable increase in the concentration of the higher oxidation state catalyst due to unavoidable radical-radical termination reactions. Since the final reactor product contained between 1,000 and 10,000 ppm of the transition metal complex, the resulting polymer has a strong color and could be mildly toxic. This level of catalyst has to be removed from the final polymer prior to use in most applications. The added production costs associated with adsorption or extraction of the catalyst in addition to isolation and recycle of organic solvents have slowed industrial acceptance of ATRP to produce materials desired by the marketplace. An additional problem of industrial relevance involves the use of the more recently developed highly active (i.e., very reducing) ATRP catalysts. Special handling procedures are often required to remove all oxygen and oxidants from these systems prior to addition of the rapidly oxidizable catalyst complex. The energy used in these purification process(es) and/or the need of rigorously deoxygenated systems contributes to the generation of chemical waste and adds cost. These are the major factors which constrain the commercial application of ATRP.
Recent advances in ATRP by the present inventors in conjunction with one of the inventors of ATRP, K. Matyjaszewski, has been disclosed in International Application No. PCT/US2006/048656, published as WO 2007/075817, hereby incorporated in their entirety by reference and further including incorporation of references disclosed therein to define the state of the art in ATRP and definitions for some of the language used herein. In that application, it was disclosed that the concentration of the catalyst used for an ATRP can be reduced to 1-100 ppm by addition of a reducing agent, or a free radical initiator, that acts throughout the reaction to continuously regenerate the lower oxidation state activator from accumulating higher oxidation state deactivator. Scheme 2. Some suitable reducing agents listed in incorporated references include; sulfites, bisulfites, thiosulfites, mercaptans, hydroxylamines, amines, hydrazine (N2H4), phenylhydrazine (PhNHNH2), hydrazones, hydroquinone, food preservatives, flavonoids, beta carotene, vitamin A, α-tocopherols, vitamin E, propyl gallate, octyl gallate, BHA, BHT, propionic acids, ascorbic acid, sorbates, reducing sugars, sugars comprising an aldehyde group, glucose, lactose, fructose, dextrose, potassium tartrate, nitrites, nitrites, dextrin, aldehydes, glycine, and many antioxidants.

This improvement in ATRP was called ARGET ATRP because the Activator was continuously ReGenerated by Electron Transfer. In Scheme 2 the regeneration is conducted by addition of a reducing agent but the deactivator can also be reduced by addition of a free radical initiator in a process called ICAR (Initiators for Continuous Activator Regeneration) ATRP.
These novel initiation/catalyst reactivation procedures allow a decrease in the amount of catalyst needed to drive a controlled ATRP to high conversion from 10,000 ppm employed in classical ATRP to, in some cases, 10 ppm or less where catalyst removal or recycling would be unwarranted for many industrial applications.
Furthermore ARGET/ICAR ATRP processes can start with the oxidatively stable, easy to handle and store CuII species, as it is reduced in situ to the CuI state. Furthermore, the level of control in the disclosed ICAR/ARGET ATRP processes are essentially unaffected by an excess (still small amount compared to initiator) of the reducing agent to continuously regenerate the lower oxidation state activator when/if it is oxidized in the presence of limited amounts of air. [Langmuir 2007, 23, 4528-4531.]
Chain-end functionality in a normal ATRP may be lost by a combination of radical-radical termination reactions and by side reactions between growing radicals and the catalyst complex; CuI (oxidation of radical to carbocation) or CuII species (reduction of radical to carbanion) Therefore another important feature of the new ARGET/ICAR catalytic systems is the suppression/reduction of side reactions due to the use of a low concentration of the transition metal complex. Reduced catalyst-based side reactions in ICAR and ARGET ATRP allow synthesis of higher molecular weight polymers and polymers with higher chain-end functionality which may allow the preparation of pure, certainly purer, block copolymers.
It was envisioned to be a simple robust procedure.
In application PCT/US2006/048656 the re-activator was added to the reaction in a single addition and control was exerted over the reaction by continuous adjustment of KATRP in the presence of excess reducing agent. Successful polymerization was achieved on the laboratory scale, 10-50 mL Schlenk flasks, for common monomers such as methyl methacrylate (MMA), butyl acrylate (nBA), styrene (St) and acrylonitrile (AN). The successful synthesis of block copolymers from common monomers such as MMA, nBA, MA and St was reported.
The critical phrase in the above paragraph discloses the scale at which the innovative work to define the improved procedures was conducted: 10-50 mL. When the procedures disclosed in PCT/US2006/048656 were scaled up some critical process disadvantages accompanying the improvements made in application became apparent:                a) slow reactions (especially for methacrylates, styrenes)        b) exothermic process (especially for acrylates) requiring        c) the need of precise temperature control        a) d) limited information for scale up and automation of process.        
Procedures to overcome these limitations, particularly at larger scale, are disclosed herein. Indeed in one embodiment of the invention disclosed controlled radical polymerization processes where the rate of addition of a reducing agent/radical initiator is continuously adjusted allows conversion of monomer to polymer to exceed 80%, preferably exceed 90% and optimally exceed 95%.